History
155 Years of Banking Leadership
Philippine banking has a long and colorful history. It began in 1828 when, as the Philippines reaped the benefits of increased trade, King Ferdinand VII of Spain issued a decree mandating the establishment of a public bank in the Philippines.
However, it took 23 years before that bank could become a reality. The man behind the actual organization of the bank was no less than the governor-general of the Philippines at that time, His Excellency Antonio de Urbiztondo y Eguia.
Gov. de Urbiztondo was a marquis of Solana in Spain who was named governor-general of the Philippines in 1850. His term of office was characterized by many administrative innovations, so it was not surprising that six years later, he would be called back to Madrid to take on a bigger role as Spain's new minister of war.
As the highest-ranking government official in the Philippines, Gov. de Urbiztondo called for the support of the Junta de Autoridades (a committee comprising of civil and ecclesiastical officials) in approving the bank's statutes and by-laws. The junta approved these statutes and by-laws on August 1, 1851, but it was understood that such approval had to be confirmed by the Spanish Crown.
The bank was called El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel 2, in honor of the reigning queen of Spain – Isabella II, daughter of King Ferdinand VII, who passed away in 1830. The Bank's office was located at the Royal Custom house (Aduana) in Intramuros (Intramuros was the original Manila, a European-style city enclosed by formidable stone walls).
The first managers of the Bank were Jose Maria Tuason and Fernando Aguirre, who each took turns serving as managing director every year. While the members of the Bank's highest policy-making board were essentially civil and ecclesiastical officials, there was also a businessman whom the Spanish Crown named to represent the business community of Manila. The man was Antonio de Ayala of the prominent Casa Roxas, precursor of Ayala y Cia, which is now Ayala Corporation.
The royal decree that confirmed the creation of El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel 2 also gave the Bank the exclusive privilege to issue paper money, which antedated the currency-issuing authority of the post-war Central Bank of the Philippines by about a hundred years (The present central bank, the official issuer of Philippine currency, started operations only in 1949). The original bank notes were collectively called pesos fuertes (PF), Spanish for "strong pesos."
The first bank notes (or paper money) in the Philippines had the issue date May 1, 1852 and could be redeemed in Mexican coins in gold or silver. Apart from carrying the name of the Bank as issuer of the currency, the bank notes also bore the portrait of the woman for whom the bank was named –- Queen Isabella II.
Coincidentally, the first transaction of the Bank was a lending transaction recorded on May 1, 1852, in which the Bank discounted a promissory note from a Chinese client. Three days later, the Bank recorded its first deposit from its first depositor.
On September 3, 1869, the Bank officially dropped the name of the queen after she was ousted from the Spanish throne during a revolution a year earlier. Like her father's reign, Isabella's rule had been stormy. Hence, since 1869, the Bank was known simply as El Banco Español Filipino.
Decades later, the management of the Bank decided to move out to where the business activity was. Binondo, on the northern side of the Pasig River, had emerged as the new center of business growth and, thus, gained more economic prominence than Intramuros.
The Chinese dominated the retail traffic while British merchants controlled the export-import business. Rosario Street (now Quintin Paredes) became the center of retail business while Escolta was the place for the finest of American and European shops. These were profitable sources of new business for El Banco Español Filipino after it relocated to No. 4 Plaza Cervantes in Binondo in January of 1892 on a piece of land acquired from the Dominican Order.
Through the years, the Bank had a close link with the Spanish Crown that even the establishment of its first branch had to be approved by authorities in Madrid. In fact, it took a royal order in 1896 to enable the Bank to open branches, although, again, this authority was still subject to clearance by Spain's minister of the colonies.
The Bank originally planned to open its first branch in Central Luzon during the first decade of its operations, which was sometime in the 1850s. The reason for this was the emergence of the region as a sugar-producing area. During that time, sugar was exported from this region, making the product a major source of income for local producers.
But the plan to put up this first branch did not materialize. By the time the Bank was ready in 1897, Central Luzon had been overshadowed by Iloilo and the Panay provinces in terms of economic prominence. This explains why the Bank's first branch was established in Iloilo instead, on March 15, 1897.
Following the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1898, in which Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States, the Bank promptly shed off its Spanish character and converted into a Philippine institution. Years later, in 1912, as a result of an earlier decision of the stockholders to rename the Bank, El Banco Español Filipino became officially known as the Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI), or Banco de las Islas Filipinas. Under the American administration, the Bank was allowed to continue issuing Philippine pesos, although no longer on an exclusive basis.
The period of rebuilding after World War II saw BPI getting actively involved in the development of industries. Although its conversion to a private bank during the American regime resulted in the loss of many privileges previously granted to it by the Spanish Crown, the Bank continued to do its share in nation building.
In 1969, the Ayala Corporation, which had been associated with the Bank since the start (either through a partner or a representative sitting on the board), became the dominant shareholder group. Following this change in the ownership structure, BPI soon became the financial flagship of the Ayala group of companies.
The ascendancy of the Ayala business house among the Bank's shareholder groups led to significant changes in the way the first bank in the Philippines conducted its business during the latter half of the 20th century. For instance, the Bank fast-tracked its growth by engaging in a merger with Peoples Bank and Trust Company in 1974. This was followed by the merger with or acquisition of Commercial Bank and Trust Company in 1981, Ayala Investment and Development Corporation in 1982, Makati Leasing and Finance Corporation in 1982, Family Bank and Trust Company in 1985, Citytrust Banking Corporation in 1996, Ayala Insurance Holdings Corporation in 2000, Far East Bank and Trust Company in 2000, DBS Bank Philippines in 2002, and Prudential Bank in 2005.
BPI officially became an expanded commercial bank (Universal bank) in 1982, and thus started engaging in non-allied undertakings.
In 2000, BPI became the first bancassurance firm in the Philippines, after it acquired the insurance companies of the Ayala Group. These companies (under the Ayala Insurance Holdings Corporation) were FGU Insurance Corporation, Universal Reinsurance Corporation, Ayala Life Assurance, Ayala Health Care, and Ayala Plans. FGU Insurance was later merged with FEB Mitsui Marine Insurance Company and is now known as the BPI/MS Insurance Corporation.
Also in 2000, the Bank introduced its internet bank, BPI Direct Savings Bank, which launched BPI into 21st century banking.
Today, BPI has maintained a leadership position in consumer banking, trust banking, and asset management, corporate banking/corporate finance, and bancassurance. With over 700 branches and around 1,100 automated teller machines, BPI boasts of having the largest combined network of branches/kiosk units and ATMs, servicing some three million depositors.
For years, international publications and rating agencies have given annual awards to BPI as one of the best banks in the region. Among these are Asiamoney, BusinessWeek, Euromoney, Far Eastern Economic Review, Finance Asia, Global Finance, The Asian Banker, The Asset, and The Banker.
BPI has consistently been cited for its above-average profitability, sufficient capital/assets, low cost funding base, and manageable non-performing loan levels. Fitch Ratings noted that BPI has a comprehensive risk management which is superior to that of its peer banks, and this serves as an important element in keeping BPI better positioned in Philippine banking in the years ahead.
"BPI: A Tradition of Leadership."
WE BELIEVE in the central role that private enterprise plays in economic development.
WE BELIEVE that our corporate mission is to be the leading private financial institution in the Philippines in terms of professional competence, service quality, responsible corporate citizenry, and overall growth and stability; and to be an established ASEAN financial institution with a creditable worldwide outreach.
WE BELIEVE that we have a responsibility to manage the business for the maximum benefit of our customers while adopting the highest standard of integrity; to offer the widest possible range of financial services that is responsive to their needs; and to adopt an objective attitude towards change and innovation, ever mindful of improving service quality and operating efficiency.
WE BELIEVE that we have a responsibility to develop the potential of our employees to the fullest by providing an environment conducive to their personal and professional growth; and to foster a value system held in common throughout the institution in order that we may all share a coherent sense of purpose and direction.
WE BELIEVE that we have a responsibility to attain, over time and within exacting standards of prudent management, the highest possible return on the investment of our shareholders.
The First Bank
DID YOU KNOW...
...that the first bank in the Philippines, established in Manila on August 1, 1851 and originally called El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel 2, was also the first bank in Southeast Asia?
…that this bank was organized 23 years after the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII, issued a decree to establish a public bank in the Philippines?
…that before the establishment of El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel 2, the functions of banks were performed, though on a limited scale, by the obras pias (Spanish for "pious works")?
…that the obras pias were an accumulation of bequests whose donors had specified that the funds be used for charitable, religious, and educational purposes?
…that some of the funds were managed by confraternities that invested capital in secular activities like underwriting cargoes for the galleon trade?
…that the organization of this bank was spearheaded by His Excellency Antonio de Urbiztondo, who was then the Spanish governor and captain-general of the Philippine Islands?
Wednesday, May 28, 2008
Monday, May 26, 2008
we can make around 1000$/Month or even more then work involved is just about 15-20 minutes per day
[B]Hello guys,
I know a method using which we can make around 1000$/Month or even more then work involved is just about 15-20 minutes per day and surely you guys will enjoy doing it.I will give you the following things
1. Ebook
2. Online live support
3. Some work involved will be done by me and also will be teached to you
2nd and 3rd options are needed only for 1st month then you can work on your own itself...Anyways after that too i will love to help you out...
This trick will work for more 5-6 months so if you want to earn lifetime the same amount using the same trick then this method is not for you but i think you can easily earn 1000$ for next 5 months atleast..
You will need to invest around 20-30$/Month
Here are some reviews posted at DigitalPoint forums
[QUOTE]I bought this a couple hours ago for 25$ and heres my honest review.
I think this is a solid money making method .... its not something I've done or thought of doing before but from the proof shown to me by OP, I think anyone who gets this will easily make 1000$ or at least 800$ from it. I think this will still be making money 5-6 months from now - beyond that I cant guarantee. Overally its a great strategy, simple enough for anyone to follow. And its also a good thing that its backed up with a refund guarantee. Not to mention the OP offers support via messenger.
I will give it a 9.5/10 rating.
[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7751676&postcount=13"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]Hey guys,
I bought this and got started right away. After a short delay, we got under way. At first I must say I was impressed, the method was quite unique and I was excited to start I wanted to see if I really could make $1k in the first month. The method will probably take around 1 and a half to two hours daily to get up to the $1k a month and the more sites you use and the more you will make. It is a good method and the conferences online were great and very helpful.
Cheers,
Daniel [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7764828&postcount=22"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]this is my review
" this is really amazing ...the idea is out of the box ...you just need a little investment and work 20-30 minutes perday and I guarantee the money will be in you pocket faster ...you investment is $XX and will turn into $$XXX or even $XXXX....this technique is totally new to me ...my target this month is $1000 and will start implement now...111Toxicity111 is really genius ....hey , you should sell this technique more than $100 ...[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7784558&postcount=36"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
Ooops iam tired now by posting this anyways here are some more :D
[QUOTE]
Here is my Review:
Great method i think we can easily make 1000$ in a month the work is really fun for me and i will love to do that.....111Toxicity111 is really helpfull he solved my doubts very easily and really an expert many many thanks really very excited to use this method superb 10/10 .. [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7809930&postcount=68"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]I got everything and It seems to be a good method, it doesn't require too much work and I'm thinking that I will get cash very fast.
Great seller, talked with him on Yahoo and was very very friendly. Also very interested on how my site will work. [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7810330&postcount=72"]Click Here To View The Above Method[/URL]
[QUOTE]no but i only got it today The concept was nothing that you would normally get in these normally useless ebooks, I will deffinitly make money using this method ( I acctually like the idea alot ) also the seller has been very helpfull to me also on a couple of things i needed to know as im a realativly new newbie i would recomend this for sure
product 10/10
seller 10/10[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7854477&postcount=95"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My Review:
Ashish (author and coach) of this 100% guaranteed money making system will make sure that you earn about $750+ in the first month itself.
He supplies one of the well written reports on DP. Which follows a simple step by step plan if that is not enough, he spends a whole month with us through Messengers to make sure that we succeed.
If you want to earn $750 - $1200 per month with a little bit of investment for some domains and hosting (He includes a link for cheap hosting, not aff)...
Then you must get this report, before it's too late.[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7869541&postcount=105"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My Review:
i disagree with you both scozzie & rchase14.....of course there are so many posts so called "make easy money/system" here in DP...but all they just sold you their technique as an e-book...that's it. They never support you to get start or implementing. But the OP gives support to us until we get $1000 in our pocket.
Coming to this technique, anyone even with no exp. like me can make anywhere between $700-$1500/month. If you have enough exp. you can easily make $5000/month. There is a hidden service from OP which is not mentioned in the thread.
@OP: Your support is awesome. You can sell this method for at least $150, as you are offering support also.
So guys Grab this, make use of his support, for sure you will get decent money.
My rating: 10/10[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7893477&postcount=124"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]
this person is really helpful ...just now , all my problems solved with his help ...I really recommend the package and support ...[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7893590&postcount=125"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My review:
First seeing this thread made me wonder if this method could really earn you that much money or not. I took the risk and paid $50 dollars for it, and the best thing is that I do not regret paying the $50 dollars at all, if I knew what the method was before I paid then I could have easily paid at least $100 for it.
This method of earning money is smart and unique, it requires some startup work but with the guidance of the OP you can easily set them all up in a matter of minutes.
The best thing of this all is that you not only get the guidance from the OP, but he is sharing his method of money making that could get saturated if leaked out. I recommend the OP to push up the price!
Rate: 9.8 / 10 !![/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7903791&postcount=128"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
Great lots of reviews have been posted
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showthread.php?t=837535"]Click Here To Visit My Sales Thread At DigitalPoint[/URL]
[B][SIZE="3"][COLOR="Red"]Price: 100$[/COLOR][/SIZE][/B]
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Thanks
[/B]
I know a method using which we can make around 1000$/Month or even more then work involved is just about 15-20 minutes per day and surely you guys will enjoy doing it.I will give you the following things
1. Ebook
2. Online live support
3. Some work involved will be done by me and also will be teached to you
2nd and 3rd options are needed only for 1st month then you can work on your own itself...Anyways after that too i will love to help you out...
This trick will work for more 5-6 months so if you want to earn lifetime the same amount using the same trick then this method is not for you but i think you can easily earn 1000$ for next 5 months atleast..
You will need to invest around 20-30$/Month
Here are some reviews posted at DigitalPoint forums
[QUOTE]I bought this a couple hours ago for 25$ and heres my honest review.
I think this is a solid money making method .... its not something I've done or thought of doing before but from the proof shown to me by OP, I think anyone who gets this will easily make 1000$ or at least 800$ from it. I think this will still be making money 5-6 months from now - beyond that I cant guarantee. Overally its a great strategy, simple enough for anyone to follow. And its also a good thing that its backed up with a refund guarantee. Not to mention the OP offers support via messenger.
I will give it a 9.5/10 rating.
[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7751676&postcount=13"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]Hey guys,
I bought this and got started right away. After a short delay, we got under way. At first I must say I was impressed, the method was quite unique and I was excited to start I wanted to see if I really could make $1k in the first month. The method will probably take around 1 and a half to two hours daily to get up to the $1k a month and the more sites you use and the more you will make. It is a good method and the conferences online were great and very helpful.
Cheers,
Daniel [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7764828&postcount=22"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]this is my review
" this is really amazing ...the idea is out of the box ...you just need a little investment and work 20-30 minutes perday and I guarantee the money will be in you pocket faster ...you investment is $XX and will turn into $$XXX or even $XXXX....this technique is totally new to me ...my target this month is $1000 and will start implement now...111Toxicity111 is really genius ....hey , you should sell this technique more than $100 ...[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7784558&postcount=36"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
Ooops iam tired now by posting this anyways here are some more :D
[QUOTE]
Here is my Review:
Great method i think we can easily make 1000$ in a month the work is really fun for me and i will love to do that.....111Toxicity111 is really helpfull he solved my doubts very easily and really an expert many many thanks really very excited to use this method superb 10/10 .. [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7809930&postcount=68"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]I got everything and It seems to be a good method, it doesn't require too much work and I'm thinking that I will get cash very fast.
Great seller, talked with him on Yahoo and was very very friendly. Also very interested on how my site will work. [/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7810330&postcount=72"]Click Here To View The Above Method[/URL]
[QUOTE]no but i only got it today The concept was nothing that you would normally get in these normally useless ebooks, I will deffinitly make money using this method ( I acctually like the idea alot ) also the seller has been very helpfull to me also on a couple of things i needed to know as im a realativly new newbie i would recomend this for sure
product 10/10
seller 10/10[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7854477&postcount=95"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My Review:
Ashish (author and coach) of this 100% guaranteed money making system will make sure that you earn about $750+ in the first month itself.
He supplies one of the well written reports on DP. Which follows a simple step by step plan if that is not enough, he spends a whole month with us through Messengers to make sure that we succeed.
If you want to earn $750 - $1200 per month with a little bit of investment for some domains and hosting (He includes a link for cheap hosting, not aff)...
Then you must get this report, before it's too late.[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7869541&postcount=105"]Click Here To View The Above Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My Review:
i disagree with you both scozzie & rchase14.....of course there are so many posts so called "make easy money/system" here in DP...but all they just sold you their technique as an e-book...that's it. They never support you to get start or implementing. But the OP gives support to us until we get $1000 in our pocket.
Coming to this technique, anyone even with no exp. like me can make anywhere between $700-$1500/month. If you have enough exp. you can easily make $5000/month. There is a hidden service from OP which is not mentioned in the thread.
@OP: Your support is awesome. You can sell this method for at least $150, as you are offering support also.
So guys Grab this, make use of his support, for sure you will get decent money.
My rating: 10/10[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7893477&postcount=124"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]
this person is really helpful ...just now , all my problems solved with his help ...I really recommend the package and support ...[/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7893590&postcount=125"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
[QUOTE]My review:
First seeing this thread made me wonder if this method could really earn you that much money or not. I took the risk and paid $50 dollars for it, and the best thing is that I do not regret paying the $50 dollars at all, if I knew what the method was before I paid then I could have easily paid at least $100 for it.
This method of earning money is smart and unique, it requires some startup work but with the guidance of the OP you can easily set them all up in a matter of minutes.
The best thing of this all is that you not only get the guidance from the OP, but he is sharing his method of money making that could get saturated if leaked out. I recommend the OP to push up the price!
Rate: 9.8 / 10 !![/QUOTE]
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showpost.php?p=7903791&postcount=128"]Click Here To View This Review[/URL]
Great lots of reviews have been posted
[URL="http://forums.digitalpoint.com/showthread.php?t=837535"]Click Here To Visit My Sales Thread At DigitalPoint[/URL]
[B][SIZE="3"][COLOR="Red"]Price: 100$[/COLOR][/SIZE][/B]
[SIZE="2"][COLOR="Red"]Great news for you guys order within 48 hours and get 50% off that means it will cost you 50$ Only....
To get 50% off use coupon code: DigitalPoint
[/COLOR][/SIZE]
[CENTER][SIZE="5"][COLOR="Red"][URL="http://www.easymon3y.com"]Click Here To Order[/URL][/COLOR][/SIZE][/CENTER]
Thanks
[/B]
International Trade
International trade
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of production, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between industries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of production specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of production (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular industries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
New Trade TheoryNew Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
Gravity model
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely due to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
Economic risks
• Risk of insolvency of the buyer,
• Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date
• Risk of non-acceptance
• Surrendering economic sovereignty
• Risk of Exchange rate
Political risks
• Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
• War risks
• Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
• Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
• Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
• Surrendering political sovereignty
• Influence of political parties in importer's company
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of production, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between industries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of production specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of production (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular industries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
New Trade TheoryNew Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
Gravity model
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely due to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
Economic risks
• Risk of insolvency of the buyer,
• Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date
• Risk of non-acceptance
• Surrendering economic sovereignty
• Risk of Exchange rate
Political risks
• Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
• War risks
• Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
• Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
• Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
• Surrendering political sovereignty
• Influence of political parties in importer's company
Wednesday, May 21, 2008
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